Older news items (pre-2010) brought over from the old website
Role of fatty acids in Alzheimer's disease
Fatty acids are rapidly taken up by the brain and incorporated into phospholipids, a class of fats that form the membrane or barrier that shields the content of cells from the external environment. Now genetically engineered mice have revealed that there is a striking increase in arachidonic acid and related metabolites in the hippocampus. Removal or reduction of the enzyme that releases this acid prevented memory deficits in the Alzheimer mice. It’s thought that the acid causes too much excitation.
Sanchez-Mejia, R.O. et al. 2008. Phospholipase A2 reduction ameliorates cognitive deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Nature Neuroscience, 11, 1311-1318.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-10/gi-gsi101408.php
Support for view of Alzheimer's as form of diabetes
Research in the last few years has raised the possibility that Alzheimer’s memory loss could be due to a third form of diabetes. A new study clarifies the connection between insulin and Alzheimer’s. It seems that the toxic protein ADDL, found in the brains of individuals with Alzheimer’s, removes insulin receptors from nerve cells, rendering those neurons insulin resistant. The findings suggest that some existing drugs now used to treat diabetic patients may be useful for Alzheimer’s treatment.
Zhao,W-Q. et al. 2007. Amyloid beta oligomers induce impairment of neuronal insulin receptors. FASEB Journal, published online ahead of print August 24.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-09/nu-dst092607.php
Link between size of hippocampus and progression to Alzheimer's
A study of 20 older adults with mild cognitive impairment has found that the hippocampus was smaller in those who developed into Alzheimer's during the 3 year period.
Apostolova, L.G. et al. 2006. Conversion of Mild Cognitive Impairment to Alzheimer Disease Predicted by Hippocampal Atrophy Maps. Archives of Neurology, 63, 693-699.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-05/uoc--rml050406.php
Post-mortem brain studies reveal features of mild cognitive impairment
Autopsies have revealed that the brains of patients with mild cognitive impairment display pathologic features that appear to place them at an intermediate stage between normal aging and Alzheimer's disease. For instance, the patients had begun developing neurofibrillary tangles, but the number of plaques was similar to that in healthy patients. All patients with mild cognitive impairment had abnormalities in their temporal lobes, which likely caused their cognitive difficulties, and many also had abnormalities in other areas that did not relate to the features of Alzheimer's disease. In a second study, of 34 patients with mild cognitive impairment who had progressed to clinical dementia before their deaths, 24 were diagnosed (post-mortem) with Alzheimer’s, and 10 with other types of dementia. As in the other study, all patients had abnormalities in their temporal lobes.
Petersen, R.C. et al. 2006. Neuropathologic Features of Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment. Archives of Neurology, 63, 665-672.
Jicha, G.A. et al. 2006. Neuropathologic Outcome of Mild Cognitive Impairment Following Progression to Clinical Dementia. Archives of Neurology, 63, 674-681.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-05/jaaj-pbs050406.php
Apolipoprotein E has been known to be synthesized in the brain in support cells such as astrocytes, microglia, and ependymal layer cells. Controversial for the last decade has been the question of whether or not neurons can produce apoE. Using a unique mouse model, researchers have now demonstrated that neurons can produce apoE, but only in response to injury to the brain.
Xu, Q. et al. 2006. Profile and Regulation of Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) Expression in the CNS in Mice with Targeting of Green Fluorescent Protein Gene to the ApoE Locus. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 4985-4994.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-05/gi-gsp051006.php
Protein identified as cause of memory loss
Researchers have identified a substance in the brain that is proven to cause memory loss, giving drug developers a target for creating drugs to treat memory loss in people with dementia. The substance is a form of the amyloid-beta protein that is distinct from plaques and has been given the name Ab*56. Ab*56 impairs memory independently of plaques or neuronal loss, and may contribute to cognitive deficits associated with Alzheimer's disease.
Lesné, S. et al. 2006. A specific amyloid-beta protein assembly in the brain impairs memory. Nature, 440, 352-357.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-03/uom-uom_1031306.php
Reduced insulin in the brain triggers Alzheimer's degeneration
By depleting insulin and its related proteins in the brain, researchers have replicated the progression of Alzheimer's disease – including plaque deposits, neurofibrillary tangles, impaired cognitive functioning, cell loss and overall brain deterioration – in an experimental animal model. Brain deterioration was not related to the pancreas, raising the possibility that Alzheimer's is a neuroendocrine disorder, or a Type 3 diabetes.
Lester-Coll, N. et al. 2006. Intracerebral streptozotocin model of type 3 diabetes: relevance to sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 9(1)
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-03/l-rii031606.php
Pin1 enzyme key in preventing onset of Alzheimer's disease
An enzyme called Pin1, previously shown to prevent the formation of the tangles characteristic of Alzheimer's brains, has now been shown to also play a pivotal role in guarding against the development of the plaques that are also characteristic of Alzheimer's. These findings establish a direct link between amyloid plaques and tau tangles, and provide further evidence that Pin1 (prolyl isomerase) is essential to protect individuals from age-related neurodegeneration.
Pastorino, L. et al. 2006. The prolyl isomerase Pin1 regulates amyloid precursor protein processing and amyloid-beta production Nature, 440, 528-534.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-03/hms-nrs032006.php
A new link in the complex chain of Alzheimer’s development has been found. It’s been found that receptors that bind apolipoprotein E (APOE) and those that bind glutamate are in fact connected, separated only by a small protein. It may be that inefficient or high levels of APOE are clogging these binding sites, preventing glutamate from activating the processes necessary to form memories. It may also be that the APOE4 variant — associated with Alzheimer's — is less efficient at removing lipid debris in the brain than is APOE2 or APOE3.
Hoe, H-S. et al. 2006. Apolipoprotein E Receptor 2 Interactions with the N-Methyl-D-aspartate Receptor. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 281, 3425-3431.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-02/gumc-nrr020906.php
Two pathways lead to Alzheimer's disease
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a transitional stage between normal cognition and Alzheimer's disease, has been categorized into two sub-types on the basis of differing symptoms. Those with the amnesic subtype (MCI-A) have memory impairments only, while those with the multiple cognitive domain subtype (MCI-MCD) have other types of mild impairments, such as in judgment or language, and mild or no memory loss. Both sub-types progress to Alzheimer's disease at the same rate. A new imaging technique has now revealed that these types do in fact have different pathologies. The hippocampus of patients with MCI-A was not significantly different from that of Alzheimer's patients (who show substantial shrinkage), but the hippocampus of those with MCI-MCD was not significantly different from that of the healthy controls.
Becker, J.T., Davis, S.W., Hayashi, K.M., Meltzer, C.C., Toga, A.W., Lopez, O.L., Thompson, P.M., for the Imaging Methods and Analysis in Geriatrics Research Group. 2006. Three-dimensional Patterns of Hippocampal Atrophy in Mild Cognitive Impairment. Archives of Neurology, 63, 97-101.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-01/uopm-tpf010606.php
Key genetic risk for Alzheimer's linked to myelin breakdown
Myelin, the fatty insulation coating the brain's internal wiring, builds up in childhood, and breaks down as we age. Myelin is critical for speedy communication between neurons. A new study supports a growing body of evidence that myelin breakdown is a key contributor to the onset of Alzheimer disease later in life. Moreover, it has also revealed that the severity and rate of myelin breakdown in healthy older individuals is associated with ApoE status. Thus both age, the most important risk factor for Alzheimer disease, and ApoE status, the second-most important risk factor, seem to act through the process of myelin breakdown.
Bartzokis, G., Lu, P.H., Geschwind, D.H., Edwards, N., Mintz, J. & Cummings, J.L. 2006. Apolipoprotein E Genotype and Age-Related Myelin Breakdown in Healthy Individuals: Implications for Cognitive Decline and Dementia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 63-72.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-01/uoc--isl122805.php
Study links Alzheimer's and Down’s syndrome
New research suggests the cognitive problems observed in Alzheimer’s are related to defects in the machinery controlling neuronal connections — PAK enzyme signaling pathways. PAK (p21-activated kinase) enzymes form a family that includes two members (PAK1 and PAK3) that play critical roles in learning and memory. Humans with genetic loss of PAK3 have severe mental retardation. The study reveals that both PAK1 and PAK3 are abnormally distributed and reduced in Alzheimer patients, and that beta-amyloid was directly involved in PAK signaling deficits. The finding suggests therapies designed to address the PAK defect could treat cognitive problems in both patient populations.
Zhao, L. et al. 2006. Role of p21-activated kinase pathway defects in the cognitive deficits of Alzheimer disease. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 234–242.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-01/uoc--sid012506.php
New technique finds higher levels of creatine in Alzheimer’s brains
Creatine is involved in the maintaining the energy balance in the brain, but creatine, being small and very soluble, is difficult to detect. A new study has now succeeded in detecting creatine in situ, in brain tissue, and has found relatively large deposits in the hippocampus of Alzheimer’s brains. The finding suggests an overlooked aspect of energy disturbance in Alzheimer's disease, but further research is needed to understand it.
Gallant, M. et al. 2006. Focally Elevated Creatine Detected in Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) Transgenic Mice and Alzheimer Disease Brain Tissue. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 281, 5-8.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-12/uow-iar122105.php
More light on apoE4 and Alzheimer’s
A mutant form of a protein that transports cholesterol, apolipoprotein E (apoE) has long been recognized as a causative factor for Alzheimer's disease, but exactly how has been unclear. 299 amino acids are associated with apoE4, but new research has now found which of these amino acids are toxic. These toxic fragments all reside in the mitochondria (the “energy powerhouse” of the cell). The finding suggests a new therapeutic approach, involving blocking interaction of apoE4 fragments with the mitochondria.
Ye, S. et al. 2005. Apolipoprotein (apo) E4 enhances amyloid peptide production in cultured neuronal cells: ApoE structure as a potential therapeutic target. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 102 (51), 18700-18705.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-12/gi-gsl121405.php
p25 only good in small doses
Elevated levels of a key brain regulatory enzyme called Cdk5 and an associated regulatory protein called p25 have been found in the brains of Alzheimer’s patients. A new mouse study has found that switching on p25 in the hippocampus for only two weeks actually enhanced learning and memory compared to normal mice; however mice in which p25 had been switched on for six weeks showed impaired learning and memory. These mice also showed significant brain atrophy and loss of hippocampal neurons. The two-week pulse of p25 did not cause neurodegeneration and had long-lasting effects on enhancing memory. The researchers suggest that p25 might be produced to compensate for the loss of Cdk5 activity during aging, however chronically high levels lead to neuronal cell death. The findings are consistent with several recent studies suggesting that in the development of Alzheimer’s, compensatory mechanisms that initially enhance neuroplasticity eventually become maladaptive when chronically activated.
Fischer, A., Sananbenesi, F., Pang, P.T., Lu, B. & Tsai, L-H. 2005. Opposing roles of transient and prolonged expression of p25 in synaptic plasticity and hippocampus-dependent memory. Neuron, 48, 825–838.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-12/cp-aje120505.php
“Default” brain activity implicated in Alzheimer's disease
Here’s an unexpected finding: imaging of the brains of 764 adults of various ages has revealed that the regions that are active when people are in “default mode” — not concentrating on anything in particular, just musing to yourself — are the same regions that develop plaques in Alzheimer’s. They also found that, when asked to concentrate on a specific task, individuals with Alzheimer’s showed increased activity in these posterior cortical regions, rather than the decreased activity seen in young, healthy adults. The researchers speculate that dementia may in fact be a consequence of normal cognitive function — a possibility that hasn’t heretofore been considered. The findings raise the hope of developing methods to detect precursors of the disease long before it develops.
Buckner, R.L. et al. 2005. Molecular, Structural, and Functional Characterization of Alzheimer's Disease: Evidence for a Relationship between Default Activity, Amyloid, and Memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 25, 7709-7717.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-08/hhmi-bai082405.php
How Alzheimer's impacts important brain cell function
Researchers have found that synaptic proteins, proteins involved in brain cell communications, decrease in the brains of Alzheimer's patients compared to healthy brains from people in the same age range. The decrease in the frontal cortex was more severe than in other portions of the brain. They also found synaptic protein levels were even lower in the brains of patients in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease, suggesting that the loss of these proteins happens very early in the disease process. The reduction of synaptic proteins may be caused by mitochondrial dysfunction, a well-documented occurrence in Alzheimer's.
Reddy, P.H., Mani, G., Park, B.S., Jacques, J., Murdoch, G., Whetsell, W.Jr., Kaye, J. & Manczak, M. 2005. Differential loss of synaptic proteins in Alzheimer’s disease: Implications for synaptic dysfunction Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, 7(2),103-117.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-04/ohs-ord040605.php
Research clarifies how Alzheimer's medicines work
New research clarifies how cholinesterase inhibitors alleviate mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's. When scientists chemically blocked receptors for an important neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, even healthy young people found it significantly harder to learn and remember – especially in the face of interference. Cholinesterase inhibitors slow the breakdown of acetylcholine. The finding also helps explain why Parkinson's disease, dementia due to multiple strokes, multiple sclerosis and schizophrenia, are all also associated with memory problems — all these conditions, like Alzheimer’s, are associated with lower levels of acetylcholine in the brain.
Atri, A., Norman, K.A., Nicolas, M.M., Cramer, S.C., Hasselmo, M.E., Sherman, S., Kirchhoff, B.A., Greicius, M.D., Breiter, H.C. & Stern, C.E. 2004. Central Cholinergic Receptors Impairs New Learning and Increases Proactive Interference in a Word Paired-Associate Memory Task. Behavioral Neuroscience, 118 (1).
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-02/apa-rch020904.php
Why diet, hormones, exercise might delay Alzheimer’s
A theory that changes in fat metabolism in the membranes of nerve cells play a role in Alzheimer's has been supported in a recent study. The study found significantly higher levels of ceramide and cholesterol in the middle frontal gyrus of Alzheimer's patients. The researchers suggest that alterations in fats (especially cholesterol and ceramide) may contribute to a "neurodegenerative cascade" that destroys neurons in Alzheimer's, and that the accumulation of ceramide and cholesterol is triggered by the oxidative stress brought on by the presence of the toxic beta amyloid peptide. The study also suggests a reason for why antioxidants such as vitamin E might delay the onset of Alzheimer's: treatment with Vitamin E reduced the levels of ceramide and cholesterol, resulting in a significant decrease in the number of neurons killed by the beta amyloid and oxidative stress.
Cutler, R.G., Kelly, J., Storie, K., Pedersen, W.A., Tammara, A., Hatanpaa, K., Troncoso, J.C. & Mattson, M.P. 2004. Involvement of oxidative stress-induced abnormalities in ceramide and cholesterol metabolism in brain aging and Alzheimer's disease. PNAS, 101, 2070-5.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-02/aaft-nsm021004.php
Late-life Alzheimer's begins in midlife
A new model of human brain aging identifies midlife breakdown of myelin, a fatty insulation with very high cholesterol content that wraps tightly around axons (part of the neurons) and enables messages to pass along the “wiring” of the brain speedily, as a possible key to the onset of Alzheimer's disease later in life. Imaging studies and examination of brain tissue shows that the brain's wiring develops until middle age and then begins to decline as the breakdown of myelin triggers a destructive domino affect. It is suggested that genetic factors coupled with the brain's own developmental process of increasing cholesterol and iron levels in middle age help degrade the myelin. The complex connections that take the longest to develop and allow humans to think at their highest level are among the first to deteriorate as the brain's myelin breaks down in reverse order of development. The model suggests that the best time to address the inevitability of myelin breakdown is when it begins, in middle age. Possible preventive therapies include cholesterol- and iron-lowering medications, anti-inflammatory medications, diet and exercise programs and possibly hormone replacement therapy designed to prevent menopause rather than simply ease the symptoms. Education and cognitively stimulating activities may also stimulate the production of myelin.
Bartzokis, G. 2003. Age-related myelin breakdown: a developmental model of cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 25(1), 5-18.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2003-12/uoc--mbc122303.php
A nicotine by-product implicated in Alzheimer’s
A previously unrecognized chemical process has been discovered, by which a chemical called nornicotine, naturally present in tobacco and produced as a metabolite of nicotine, permanently and irreversibly modifies proteins in the body. These modified proteins interact with other chemicals in the body to form a variety of compounds known as advanced glycation endproducts. Advanced glycation endproducts have previously been implicated in numerous diseases including diabetes, cancer, atherosclerosis, and Alzheimer’s disease.
Dickerson, T.J. & Janda, K.D. 2002. A previously undescribed chemical link between smoking and metabolic disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 99 (23), 15084-15088.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2002-10/sri-aka102402.php